Child Labour Essay

Children are the flowers of heaven. They are the most beautiful and purest creation of God. They are innocent both inwardly and outwardly. No doubt, they are the beauty of this world. Early in the morning when the children put on different kinds of clothes and begin to go to schools for the sake of knowledge, we feel a specific kind of joy through their innocence. Introduction But there are children, those who cannot go to schools due to financial problems, they only watch others go to schools and can merely wish to seek knowledge. It is due to many hindrances and difficulties; desperate conditions that they face in life. Having been forced to kill their aspirations, dreams and other wishes, they are pressed to earn a living for themselves and for their families forgotten the pleasures of their childhood. When a child in order to earn his livelihood, does any kind of job, this act of earning a livelihood is called as Child Labour. Not all work done by children should be classified as child labour that is to be targeted for elimination. Children’s participation in work that does not affect their health and personal development or interfere with their education is generally regarded as being something positive. Whether or not particular forms of â€Å"work† can be called â€Å"child labour† depends on the child’s age, the type and hours of work performed and the conditions under which it is performed, as set out in the ILO Conventions. But before we go ahead, we must be clear about definition of child in our mind. In this regard United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund (UNICEF)’s definition is regarded as standard, which defines â€Å"child† as anyone below the age of 18, and â€Å"child Labour† as some type of work performed by children below age 18. But, it must also be noted that individual governments may define â€Å"child† according to different ages or other criteria. Child and childhood are also defined differently by different cultures. a child is not necessarily defined by a fixed age. Social scientists point out that child’s abilities and maturities vary so much that defining a child’s maturity by calendar age can be misleading. Definition Child Labour is the natural outcome of extenuating circumstances, which evolve when the compelling forces of abject poverty, sprouting population, and non-existent facilities of health, education and welfare, exploited the deprived and disadvantaged populace. The International Labour Organization (ILO) defines child Labour as: 1- When a child is working during early age 2- He overworks or gives over time to Labour 3- He works due to the psychologically, socially, and materialistic pressure 4- He becomes ready to Labour on a very low pay History The concept of child Labour got much attention during the 1990s when European countries announced a ban on the goods of the less-developed countries because of child Labour. The curse gained power in the industrial revolution at the end of nineteenth century. The Victorian era became notorious for employing young children in factories and mines and as chimney sweeps. Child labour played an important role in the Industrial Revolution from its outset, often brought about by economic hardship. The children of the poor were expected to help towards the family budget, often working long hours in dangerous jobs for low pay, earning 10-20% of an adult male’s wages. In England and Scotland in 1788, two-thirds of the workers in 143 water-powered cotton mills were described as children. In 19th-century Great Britain, one-third of poor families were without a breadwinner, as a result of death or abandonment, obliging many children to work from a young age. Not only in the west, but also in the East and Middle-East countries, this curse was rooted in societies, but not as intensely, as in the West. With the passage of time, with growing economic pressure, people had no choice but to make their children share their economic burden and help them financially. Statistics According to estimates by International Labour Organization (ILO), in their report of 2006, the number of working children aged 5-14 years was globally190 million. Country Child Labour Remarks Asia 122 Million Greatest in Number Sub-Saharan Africa 50 Million 26% of total Latin America 5 Million Least Rest 13 Million – The following statistics summarise the key findings from the third ILO Global Report on Child Labour Accelerating action against child labour which contains new global estimates on child labour. Children comprise of 60% of the world’s total. On average, one child in every seven can be classified as a child labourer. The incidence of child labour is highest in Africa where 41% of 5-14 years old children are known to labour, compared with 25% in Asia and 17% in Latin America and Caribbean. In 2008, there were approximately 215 million child labourers, aged 5-17, in the world. Among them, 115 million children were in hazardous work (a term which is often used as a payment, only food and a place to sleep. Children in informal sector work receive no payment if they are injured or become ill, and can seek no protection if they suffer violence or are maltreated by their employer. 10% of these children are working 60 hours a week. Classification UNICEF has classified child work into three broad categories: 1. Within the Family Children are engaged without pay in domestic household tasks, agricultural pastoral work, handicraft/cottage industries etc. 2. Within the Family but outside the Home Children do agricultural/pastoral work which consists of (seasonal/ full-time) migrant labour, local agricultural work, domestic service, construction work and informal occupation e.g. recycling of waste- employed by others and self-employed. 3. Outside the Family Children are employed by others in bonded work, apprenticeship, skilled  trades (Carpet, embroidery, and brass/copper work), industrial unskilled occupations/ mines, domestic work, commercial work in shops and restaurants, begging, prostitution and pornography. Its further classifications are: a. Migrant Child Labour Child migrate from the rural area to the urban or from smaller to larger towns cities either with their families or alone. They migrate either for better employment opportunities or to escape from bondage b. Bonded Child Labour Children are pledged by their parents/guardians to employers in lieu of debts or payment. The rates of interest on loans are so high that the amount to be repaid accumulates every year, making repayment almost impossible c. Urban Child Labour The phenomenon of urban child labour includes street children. These children belong to three broad categories: i. Children on the Street Working children who have families but spend most of their time in streets They earn for themselves and may or may not contribute to the family income. ii. Children off the Streets Working children who have left their families in villages or towns and have migrated to the city. They do not have a place to live and hence spend their nights at the railway platforms, bus stands etc. They live independently and usually spend all that they earn in the same day. iii. Abandoned/Orphaned Children Working children without families or whose families have abandoned them They spend their lives on the streets without any kind of support and are hence the most exploited and abused of the lot. d. Invisible Child Labour Children work in the unorganized or/and informal sector. They do not come under the purview of law. They constitute a substantial proportion of the child labour in the country. Most of them do not go to school and are involved in criminal activities. Causes There are a number of causes which are responsible for this curse; some of the major of these is discussed as below: Poverty International Labour Organization (ILO) suggests poverty is the greatest single cause behind child labour. There is also the high inflation rate to contend with. As of 2008, 17.2% of the total population lives below the poverty line, which is the lowest figure in the history of Pakistan. Poverty levels in Pakistan appear to necessitate that children work in order to allow families to reach their target take†home pay. Literacy and Educational Problems Majority of the population of the country is illiterate. It is pitiful that they themselves do not want to get educated. This may be due to any of these reasons: Quality education is expensive. To get their children educated, parents have to work more and harder to meet the expenses. This leads to disappointment among the parents and they either send them to â€Å"Madrassas† or send them to work. A student who has just passed his matriculation exams, and unfortunately was not able to secure good marks has very dull chances of making a profitable career in the future. Thus he joins some workshop and starts learning mechanics which enables him to earn a livelihood in the future. This may take long, but this always works. There also exists a phobia among teen agers that education is very tough, demanding and difficult. So, sometimes they do not go for education and always are in quest of alternatives. Irrelevant, non-effective and non- standardized, non-vocational education has made schools and education system just a burden to society. Illiterate parents do not realize the need for a proper physical, emotional and cognitive development of their child. As they are illiterate, they do not realize the importance of education for their child. Traditional Values In third-world countries, where child labour was common, as well as in contemporary child labour of modern world, certain cultural beliefs have rationalized child labour and thereby encouraged it. Some view that work is good for the character-building and skill development of children. In many cultures, particular where informal economy and small household businesses  thrive, the cultural tradition is that children follow in their parents’ footsteps; child labour then is a means to learn and practice that trade from a very early age. Similarly, in many cultures the education of girls is less valued or girls are simply not expected to need formal schooling, and these girls pushed into child labour such as providing domestic services. Ignorance of Parents This is one of the important social cases often visible in step-parents and foster-parents. The parents are simply ignorant of adverse consequences of child labour. They just put their children to work and become contented that the total income of the house is increased. And if at all, they know about the circumstances, they are unaware of their rights and are less likely to complain or revolt. Sometimes, even adverse circumstances are noticed. The parents just leave their children alone and ask them to earn their livelihood themselves. Sometimes parents sell their children in order to repay debts or secure a loan. Ineffective Enforcement and Violation of the Legal Provisions Pertaining to Child Labour Even when laws or codes of conduct exist, they are often violated. For example, extensive subcontracting can intentionally or unintentionally hide the use of child labor. There may be a number of reasons for violation e.g. The laws may be vague, inconsistent or confusing. The government has not that much capabilities and resources to implement the laws. There may be some iron hands who do not want to implement the laws because of their own benefits. Justifications of Employers Child labour plays an important role in mills and factories because child labour is cheap, easily available, easily accessible and better managed as they are not able to unite against the exploitations. In countries with largest number of child labourers; India and Pakistan, mill owners justify the involvement of children in industry as they have nimble fingers which enable them to give special attention to details. Some, sort of work, they argue, can’t be done by adults as flawlessly as done by children e.g. embroidery, football stitching, carpeting, delicate glassware etc. On the  side of the firms, the low cost of child labour gave manufacturers a significant advantage in the Western marketplace, where they undersell their competitors from countries prohibiting child labour, often by improbable amounts. Other Factors Child soldiers are forcibly enlisted into military services and operations. The international sex trade places great value on child prostitutes. Girls and to a lesser extent boys also, are kidnapped from their homes (or sold) to networks of child traffickers supplying overseas markets: poverty and sexual and racial discrimination also drive children into tourist sex trade. Other factors may include high rate of inflation, population explosion, unemployment, uneven distribution of wealth and resources, discrimination among the nation and against minority groups, poor infra-structure, outdated social customs and norms and plethora of other factors. Forms of Child labour During the year 2001 and 2002 the government of Pakistan carried out a series of consultation of tripartite partners and stakeholders (Labour Department, trade unions, employers and NGOs) in all the provinces. The objective was to identify the occupations and the categories of work, which may be considered as hazardous under the provisions of ILO Convention 182. As a result of these deliberations, a national consensus list of occupations and categories of work was identified, which is given below: Work inside underground mines over ground quarries, including blasting and assisting in blasting Work with power driven cutting machinery like saws, shears, and guillotines, ( Thrashers, fodder cutting machines, also marbles) Work with live electrical wires over 50V. All operation related to leather tanning process e.g. soaking, de-hairing, liming chrome tanning, de-liming, pickling de-fleshing, and ink application. Mixing or application of pesticides insecticide/fumigation. Sandblasting and other work involving exposure to free silica. Work with exposure to All toxic, explosive and carcinogenic chemicals e.g. ammonia, chlorine, sulphur dioxide, organic and inorganic acids, caustic soda, phosphorus, epoxy, resins, metal fumes of heavy metals like nickel, mercury chromium, lead, arsenic etc. Work with exposure to cement dust (cement industry and  construction industry) Work with exposure to coal dust Manufacture and sale of fireworks explosives Work at the sites where Liquid Petroleum Gas (LPG) and Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) are filled in cylinders. Work on glass and metal furnaces Football stitching and making of toys Work in the clothe printing, dyeing and finishing sections Work inside sewer pipelines, pits, storage tanks Stone crushing Lifting and carrying of heavy weight specially in transport industry ( 15kg and above) Work between 10 pm to 8 am ( Hotel Industry) Carpet waving Working 2m above the floor All scavenging including garbage and hospital waste Tobacco processing ( including Niswar) and Manufacturing Deep fishing ( commercial fishing/ sea food and fish processing Sheep casing and wool industry Ship breaking Surgical instrument manufacturing specially in vendors workshop Bangles glass, furnaces Beggary, prostitution and other criminal activities Laws and Reforms Before we talk about labour laws, let’s first have a look at the constitutional provisions pertaining to child labour. †¢ Article 3: The state shall ensure the elimination of all forms of exploitation and the gradual fulfillment of fundamental principle, from each according to his ability and to each according to his work. †¢ Article 11(3): No child below the age of 14 years shall be engaged in any factory or mine or any other hazardous employment. †¢ Article 25(A): The state shall provide free and Setting-up credit and savings schemes in an attempt to provide alternatives to bonded labour. Vocational education is also one of the major clauses compulsory to all children of the age of five to sixteen years in such manner as determined by law. †¢ Article 37(e): The state shall make provision for securing just and humane conditions of work, ensuring that women and  children are not employed in vacations unsuited to their age or sex, and for maternity benefits for women in employment. Following instruments of legislation deal exclusively with the subject of child labour. †¢ The Employment of Children Act 1991 †¢ The Employment of Children Rules 1995 Other than these two, there are other laws as well which deal with the employment of children and regulate the working conditions for employed child workers. Mines Act, 1923 The Children (Pledging of Labour) Act, 1933 The Factories Act, 1934 The Road Transport Workers Ordinance, 1961 Shops and Establishments Ordinance, 1969 The Bonded Labour System Abolition Act 1992. The Punjab Compulsory Education Act 1994 Merchant Shipping Ordinance, 2001 Efforts to Reduce Child Labour Save the Children Movement Save the children has also been working with some of the sporting goods manufacturers represented by the Sialkot Chamber of Commerce and Industry (SCCI) and their international partner brands, represented by the World Federation of the Sporting Goods Industry (WFSGI). This joint effort is aimed at ensuring that children are not employed to stitch footballs. Save the Children has also worked on project with the British Secretary of State for International Development to phase out child labour in Sialkot. The  £750,000 donated by Britain will be spent on education and training, and also on SPARC SPARC has conducted research that goes into producing its publications, including three major books on child labour, juvenile justice and child rights. Its annual report The State of Pakistan’s Children and a large number of brochures, SPARC has conducted a number of research studies. SPARC has continued to ask successive governments to upgrade their laws to set a legal age limit for employment in Pakistan, although they have not been successful in doing so. Other NGOs Other NGOs that has worked on the issue of child labour in Pakistan includes organization such as UNICEF. UNICEF supported the NCCWD in drafting of the Child Protection Law and the Child Protection Policy and initiated the establishment of Child Protection Monitoring and Data Collecting System. Many other NGO such as ROZAN has work to protect the children. SPARC is also an NGO. Impacts on Society Some of the impacts of Child labour are as follows: Stunted growth of future generation Inability to contribute to and benefit from development Citizens with accumulated frustration Adult unemployment Depreciation in wages Rising poverty level and economic inequality Increased abuse rate of children Heightened crime rate Increased illiteracy Citizens with inferiority complex Malnourished and sick citizens Political instability Inter-generational phenomenon of child labour Increased constrictions in the development process Wasted human resources, talents and skills Suggestions to Eradicate Child Labour Possibly there can be no remedies for this problem. However short and long measures are possible. Rather child labour is banned in law but it is there as crime. However, it needs to draw the attention of concerns to the issue so that the root causes of issue may be explored and take a step forward with better strategy to cope with the issue systematically. The law-breakers must be punished accordingly. The parents of the children should be motivated for the purpose. The support mechanism should include schooling facilities, evolve marketing linkages of certain occupations and crafts by making communities the owner of their business preventing from external exploitation The children we employ in our homes will grow up and head  families of similarly low income. They will want their children to earn for them the same way they did for their parents. A steady family profession will be established, which will repeat and multiply in each generation. Until and unless we remove this economic incentive for having more children, poverty and population control will remain elusive. By refusing to employ a child in your home, you can help solve the problem As the provision of universal and compulsory education should be fixed upto matriculation at least, in the very start. This education should be completely free with free provision of books and uniform. The banks should advance loans for the affected families, as by micro credit banks, to start some cottage industry at their homes. Loans should be interest less and very small installments should be covered. All such cottage industries should work under the supervision of an expert. Also, facilitate and sensitize Government to take steps getting workers out of debt. For the purpose special funds might be allocated. Children used to labour can be best equipped with manual competence, by inducting them to technical and professional training. For them, special vocational institutes should be opened for best results, where education and technical knowledge shall go hand-in-hand. Small stipends shall virtually work wonders. Disabled children must receive priority attention due to their particular vulnerability to exploitation in the worst forms of child labour on the streets. Civil society and media’s engagement can change the attitude. It can raise awareness among people about child labour, population growth and its adverse effects on health and development, thus alleviating children’s vulnerability to get abused. Children should be guarded against hard work, in accordance with the children’s right and human rights. They should be provided opportunities to better their lot by giving them a chance to physically, intellectually, morally and socially to grow, develop and progress. Various international agencies are closely cooperating by providing monetary assistance besides material goods. All these materials and funds should be employed for their welfare, and, no one should be allowed to rob them of rightful privileges and facilities. In this respect, there is wide scope for N.G.O’s should come forward and chalk out practical planning for the alleviations of child labour. Summary The project is about a very controversial issue: Child Labour. The report  conveys that how the innocent creatures are bound to work for longer hours in very minute amount of income and gaining benefit of them. Child labor is a multi-dimensional issue. With no intentions of demystifying this complex, one would focus on the difference between child labor and child work, and possible consequences of deliberate or unaware exercise of the two terms interchangeably. Child labor reflects the violation of child rights leading to exploitation and deprivations of all kinds. Child work reflects social inequity and insecurity, dearth of social safety networks, magnitude of poverty, lacking of opportunities for health and education, and financial independence. The report also states the classifications, forms, reasons and impacts of child labour on society. It further talks about different laws and organization working for these laws. It also points out the ways to stop this curse. References en.wikipedia.org/wiki/child_labour www.ilo.org/global/topics/child-labour www.unicef.org/protection/files/child_labour.pdf www.ilo.org/ipec/facts www.continuetolearn.uiowa.edu/laborctr/child_labor/about/what_is_child_labor.html www.child-abuse.laws.com/child-labor www.childlabour.in www.childinfo.org/labour_education.html www.elct.org/about/overview.html www.tnchildlabour.tn.gov.in/causes.html www.childlabordata.com/the-effects.html Bibliography Child Labour & Educational Disadvantage a Review by Gordon Brown

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What lessons can policymakers draw from our economic past Essay

What lessons can policymakers draw from our economic past - Essay Example Revolution in the late 1970’s, the fiscal crisis that was precipitated as a result of drastically decreased fuel supplies, would likely not have occurred either. Further, the most recent financial collapse of 2007/2008 could have at least partially been prevented was largely the result of incorrect levels of regulations employed to ensure correct levels of debt to equity within the banking systems existed around the globe. As a function of analyzing these three crises and drawing useful inference with respect to how experts and policymakers can engage these lessons to ameliorate such threats, it is the hope of this student that this discussion will be useful with regard to providing useful inference and applicable best practices that can facilitate future decisions. without question, one of the most impactful economic disasters that has taken place during the course of human history is that of the Great Depression. At the conclusion of the First World War, individuals around the globe began to see a glimmer of hope (Mitchner & Mason, 2013). Seeking to rebuild their lives, engaged in commerce and business, and establish something of a new world order, business rapidly expanded and a renewed level of optimism helped to create and overinflated stock market. Although many individuals, wrongly symptoms that the stock market crash of 1929, also referred to as Black Friday, was responsible for ushering in the Great Depression, it was only one aspect of the that contribute to economic hardships and difficulties that were exhibited over the next decade (Alumnia et al., 2010). Shortly after the stock market collapse, individuals began to realize that the sheer magnitude of money that was lost equated to nearly $40 billion in 1929 money. As a result of this, a desire to lay hands on material resources and resist any further drops in value or loss to financial instruments created a run on the banks (Andrews, 2013). Due to the fact that banks did not have a requirement

Care Issues with Informatics application Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Care Issues with Informatics application - Essay Example In this case, the 80 year old male patient’s condition has worsened and the key issues those are making the instance a challenging one are: 1. Infrastructural limitations 2. Non availability of specialised medical human resource at the local centre 3. Costs. Although the centerpiece of this case is a medical exigency but the case also highlights the crucial role that the technology is now playing in health care. Ever since the invention of monaural stethoscope in early nineteenth century, technology’s role in assisting clinicians in their noble pursuits has progressively been increasing (Sood, 2006). Telemedicine/telehealth is one such disruptive technology that has the potential to address all the above listed three issues and in many countries it has already started influencing the way ßhealth care services are delivered. Researchers have defined telemedicine as the use of telecommunications technologies to provide medical information and services (Mair & Whitten, 2000). Telemonitoring, mHealth and telesurgery are some of the promising and upcoming applications of telemedicine that aim to address the issues pertaining to the shortage of infrastructural and specialized medical human resources. The present case can also be effectively and efficiently handled with the help of applications like telemonitoring and mHealth. Figure 1. gives an idea about the utility of mHealth, it indicates that mHealth can enable the specialist to monitor the patient’s condition while he/she is at his/ her home or is being transported to the hospital. Telemonitoring systems have already proved to be feasible and acceptable by clinicians. The issues encountered in the context of present case can be easily resolved with the help of commercial telemonitoring systems. Two such commercially available systems are i) TeleMedic Systems’ Vitalink3 (VitalLink, 2009) ii) Nonin’s Onyx II model 9560 (Advancing Telemedicine, 2009). VitalLink enables

Cache Level Essay Example for Free

Cache Level Essay Describe the purpose of ONE (1) setting that is statutory provision for each age range. A statutory provision for under 5’s could be a nursery as it is fully funded by the government. The government dictates that education must be provided for all children under 5 although it is the parents’ wishes to send children to nursery. The intention of a nursery is so that they educate the children before they start school, also they can help develop their social and their motor skills so that they are nearly fully developed ready for starting school. The role of the school is to support parent’s wishes and access children’s educational needs. â€Å"The Foundation Phase is a statutory framework for children aged 3-7 in Wales. At our school we are committed to the holistic development of each child, looking at where they are in their stage of development and teaching them the skills they need to reach their full potential†-(http://www. cogannursery. co. uk/#/curriculum/4540401886)-10/10/12 A primary school is a statutory provision for ages between five and seven. This setting provides full time education by following the national curriculum â€Å"The National Curriculum, taught to all pupils in state or maintained schools, is made up of blocks of years, known as key stages† All local authorities in England and Wales must provide a choice of schools for children to attend. D2: Describe the purpose of ONE (1) setting that is a different type of provision for each age range. A different provision for under 5’s could be a private nanny, a private nanny works in the home of the children and lives in or out of the home depending on the parent’s decision. A nanny looks after children from birth onwards although this depends on the parents’ wishes. Nanny’s work in a private working agreement, so the parents of the children pay the nanny directly and also pay their taxes and national insurance. A purpose of a nanny is so that in out of school hours the children are looked after and cared for; a nanny is purposed for busy working class parents. â€Å"Nanny is responsible for the entire care of the children of their employers. This includes anything from washing the childrens clothes and tidying the childrens rooms, to supervising homework and preparing childrens meals, as well as taking children to and from school and activities. A nanny is available 24 hours a day, unless their employment contract states otherwise. †- (http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Nanny)-10/10/12 A different provision for children between five and seven could be an out of school club. An out of school club doesn’t educate children although they do offer a range of activities. It is the parent’s choice to use the school club as it is fully paid by the parents. All out of school clubs follow health and safety rules. â€Å"Our aim is to provide quality accessible  out of school childcare offering a range of play activities in a friendly and  welcoming atmosphere. †- (http://www. debsoutofschoolclubs. co. uk/ )- 15/10/12 D3: Describe the work of a professional or an agency working with children. A professional role which would work with children would be a children’s nurse. A nurses’ role is varied and sometimes challenging. Support is a major factor for the role of a nurse; children’s nurses will work as part of a team including doctors, hospital play staff, radiographers, healthcare assistants, new-born hearing screeners, psychologists and social workers. â€Å"This branch involves everything from nursing a sick new-born to an adolescent road accident victim. The challenges are very varied, with family care and support a key element. †- (http://www. nhscareers. nhs. uk/explore-by-career/nursing/careers-in-nursing/childrens-nursing/ ) A Children’s nurse helps and supports children by evaluating patient needs to provide the best possible care. Nurses also support families of the patients they educate and advise children about treatments and implications also to provide support and training to help deliver follow-up care at home. â€Å"It is a privileged position which allows you to help families when they can be at their most vulnerable†- (http://www. dayinthelife. org. uk/Default. aspx? pageid=322) D4: Describe how to keep information about children and families confidential. It is important to be confidential as it is a legal requirement in some cases. The policy for confidentiality means that information about children or families should not be shared amongst others. Everyone who works in a childcare setting must know about the confidentiality policy and follow the rules. The policy also states that all information and facts about the child must be stored in an secure safe place, information and facts about each individual child should be stored and locked away and only to be used when needed by the teachers or staff when given permission. Contact details of each individual child should be stored away this includes their name, age, number, address etc. Also other paperwork of each child should be stored away too, such as school reports, grades/levels, medical notes, etc. â€Å"Anyone working with young children, whether in a nursery setting, a school or in a family home, will need to practice confidentiality. Confidentiality is respect for the privacy of any information about a child and his or her family†- An Introduction to Childcare and Education, Carolyn MeggItt, Jessica Stevens, Tina Bruce, ISBN 0-340-78007-X, 215pg- Monday 8th October 2012 (Date Found), Year 2000 Published. D5: Explain how to prepare to work in a placement with children. To prepare for work placement with children always be prepared, call placement at least two days before you start to confirm what time you are due in and finish and what you are supposed to wear and bring to placement. When meeting you supervisor for the first time always make sure you look neat and tidy, by tying your hair back, make sure nails are short and well cared-for, wear natural make up or none if possible, take all excessive jewellery out e. . facial piercings, also dress appropriately e. g. smart pair of trousers/leggings, with a black or white t-shirt/polo shirt, jacket or cardigan and a sensible black pair of shoes. D6: Give TWO (2) different ways in which you can show that you understand the importance of valuing each child as an individual. There are many ways of treating children as individuals. As a practitioner you could meet the child’s needs by talking to a child one to one as this could stren gthen the child’s self-confidence and esteem. Every child learns differently a child could learn by auditory (Listening, being told things), kinaesthetic (doing practical activities), visual (being shown things or remembering information by drawing) or read/writing learning (prefer to read instructions than being told what to do), as a practitioner you need to be aware of this. Going down to a child level could make it easier for them to understand the task being asked as they will feel more comfortable and also the teacher can understand what they find difficult. Listen to the child and treat them accordingly to their wishes and needs. All children should be treated equally and activities set differently according to their abilities. When planning an activity at the setting I must make sure that each child participates in the activity like making â€Å"Christmas â€Å"cards, some children do not celebrate Christmas so find another sort of celebration card or activity for them to do. Diversity could be shown within children nurseries creches, day-cares and schools. Every child had different religions and beliefs to follow so encouraging children to understand the different religions and beliefs to understand why other children celebrate these other celebrations. Practitioners and teachers should do certain activates with the children which involve different religions so the children have more of an understanding of the religions around them e. g. do painting activities including different symbols of religions, playing games from religions, reading books of religions etc. C1: Give TWO (1) examples of when you should refer information about children and families to professionals in the setting. You should only share information about a child and their family if you are concerned that the child is in harm, this could be through abuse, neglect or violence. If you have concerns that a child may be in this situation you should inform a higher member of staff who then can contact the police and social services. Social services and police work together as a multi-agency which is where two or more agencies work together to make an impact. If a professional in a childcare setting may be concerned that a child is in danger, or has seen any bruises of physical abuse he/she should report it to a higher member of staff. A professional may also reveal confidential information to other staff/professionals if it may put other people/children in harm or it may affect the child’s behaviour and emotions such as stress within the family. Another example of when a professional might share personal information is when a Childs routine may be changed e. g. changes have been made to picking up or dropping off a child. Staff would need to know this information as so they are able to let the child go at a differ time or with another guardian or the child. B1: Explain why the first impressions that you make in the setting are important. The first impressions when starting placement first time is important because this is what you are remembered by and what people judge u on. You should wear appropriate comfortable smart clothing which is suitable for when doing activities with the children. Most nurseries/day cares expect their employers and practitioners to dress smartly e. . black trousers, white smart shirt. A good appropriate attitude is also important when making a first impression; you should be enthusiastic eager and always make sure you look like you’re enjoying yourself whatever you’re doing. Making a good impression shows that you value the job/placement. Team work is needed through of life it’s a needed life skill it is important especially when working with children. B2: Explain suitable ways in which you can show positive attitudes when working in a childcare setting. Within a childcare setting you can show a positive attitude by involving yourself with the children. You should wear suitable comfortable clothing for working with children, this might be a pair of stretchy smart trousers and a white polo top and a pair of black smart shoes. A: Explain the importance of keeping information about children and families confidential. It’s important to keep information about children and families confidential at all times. As practitioners you are never to discuss matters or concerns about children and their families outside the working environment. It important to maintain confidentiality about children and their families secure and safe as it is your responsibility as a professional. When sharing information about a child or their family you’re not just breaking the rules and policies of you working placement you are also putting a child at risk and harm. A*: Reflect on the importance of recognising your own learning style and using this knowledge effectively in your studies. After learning about learning styles I found out that my learning style is visual, this mean that I would prefer to learn through seeing e. g. eing shown things through pictures, slide shows and diagrams. Recognising your own learning style will help you by finding out the best way for you to learn and understand things. There are three different types of learning styles such as visual, auditory and kinaesthetic. Visual learning style mean that you learn better by recognising things e. g. pictures, posters, watching a programme. Auditory leaning st yle means that you learn better and understand more by listening to other people. A kinaesthetic learner learns by practical learning for example moving around and doing the activity not just writing notes about it. Bibliography http://www. cogannursery. co. uk/#/curriculum/4540401886 10/10/12 http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Nanny -10/10/12 http://www. debsoutofschoolclubs. co. uk/ 15/10/12 http://www. nhscareers. nhs. uk/explore-by-career/nursing/careers-in-nursing/childrens-nursing/ 15/10/12 http://www. dayinthelife. org. uk/Default. aspx? pageid=322 23/10/12 An Introduction to Childcare and Education Carolyn MeggItt, Jessica Stevens, Tina Bruce, ISBN 0-340-78007-X, 215pg- Monday 8th October 2012 (Date Found), Year 2000 Published. Word Count 1,497

SWOT Analysis: A Small Family Business

SWOT Analysis: A Small Family Business Family business is definitely a strength for RCDC as in a family owned business, the owners view their as an asset to pass on to their descendants rather than wealth to consume during their lifetimes (carron,1999). In addition, as recently argued by Zellweger(2007), the extended time horizon that characterizes family firms reduces the marginal risk of an investment and therefore the corresponding risk-equivalent cost of equity capital (McNulty,Yeh,schulze and Lubatkin,2002). Consequently, family owned firms can seize investment opportunities their non-family competitors do not consider as sufficiently attractive or consider too risky;such a situation offers family owned firms the possibility of developing their activities unhindered by aggressive competitors and of conquering markets that competitors cannot enter(Zellweger,2007,p-9) Moreover, families may bring with them significant financial and physical resources,called survivability capital(Simon and Hitt,2003),which can be used to sustain the business during economic hardship or after unsuccessful strategic movies (Dyer,2006). These elements are usually known by customers and suppliers,who may establish and cultivate long-lasting relationships because of the goodwill and trustworthiness generated by the family commitment (dollinger 1995). 2) Strong Criticism from shareholders: The continuous negative feedback from directors of warwick investments regarding the poor dividend payment record and the lack of strategic direction is actually a strength of RCDC as it acts as a drive for improvement .It is because of this critism and the drop in turnover that the Lancasters and Yorks are trying to find every possible way to save their business and satisfy the stakeholders. 3) Long-term experience in the dry cleaning business: As per the case RCDC has been in the dry cleaning business for more than a decade and they have managed to run the business reasonably well which means that they have had a good market share and enough customers to patronize and a fairly good knowledge of the particular business. They can use this experience to overcome the weaknesss and excel in their traditional business. 4)Flexi-timing: The RCDC has got both full time and part-time staff which is a strength as it increases the employee morale ,engagement and commitment to the organisation.It reduces the absenteeism to a certain level and increase the chances of recruiting outstanding employees.It even helps in reducing the staff turnover and developing the image of the employer. Weaknesses: 1)High staff turnover: As mentioned in the case, RCDC is facing a hgh level of staff turnover at both staff and managerial level which is one of the causes of the reduced organisational performance .Excessive employee turnover can hurt the overall productivity of a firm and is often a symptom of other difficulties.Every organisation strives to have high productivity,lesser turnovers and maximum profitability.managing turnover successfully is a must to achieve the above goals.Abassi and Hollman(200) stressed that the managers must recognise the employees as major contributor to the efficient achievement of the organisations success.Furthermore,highly motivated and performing individuals are the crucial factors of the organisational productivity. Therefore,there is need to develop a thorough understanding of the employee turnover from the perspective of causes,effect and strategies to minimize turnover. 2) Absence of training and development: This another weakness of RCDC which is worth mentioning as this can be a major cause for employee turnover as there is no growth within the organisation.according to the case ,the training and development interventions are completely nonexistent which means that there is no scope for employees to develop or achiveve some sort expertise in their particular professions.Moreover,Training and development is asource of competitive advantage for companies which helps to remove performance deficiencies in employees. There I greater stability,flexibility and capacity for growth in an organisation.Training contributes to employee stability in at least two ways .Employees become efficient after undergoing training. Efficient employees contribute to the growth of the organisation and growth in trn renders stability to the workforce. 3)safety Measures at work: The mishap that happened with one of the employees at RCDC makes it evident that safety measures are completely missing in the company which means RCDC is putting the ife of its employees at risk by making them work in an unsafe environment which in turn spoils the image of the company. 4) Conflict among the owners: There is a lot of conflict among the owners of the RCDC which is one of the root causes of the underperformance of the company.There is no strategic planning ,no control and no direction at all. Threats: 1)Competion: One of the main threats to all the businesss is competition and RCDC is no exception. RCDCs main competitor is Bletcheys fast clean plc which operstes approximately in the same geographical area .The Bletcheys can even take advantage of the internal problems faced by RCDC to take greater market share.as compared to RCDC, the marketing strategies and pricing policies of Bletcheys.are better and their success rate is also quite high which is why many of the RCDC employees have joined Bletchey and they have been able to pull many of the customers along with them. 2) Seasonal work : Usually people consider dry cleaning for woollen and expensive clothes so the sales tend to be higher in winter and autumn where as summer is marked with reduced sales as the clothes are machine washable. 3) Increasing nmber of supermarkets Another threat posing the traditional neighbourhood dry cleaning business is the increasing number of supermarkets having the dry cleaning stores.Most of the pople nowa-a-days find it convenient to shop from these supermarkets where they get their clothes also drycleaned.This can eventually lead to complete extinction of the traditional drycleaning. 4)Legal issues: Court cases filed against RCDC by its employees is another threat to the smooth functioning of the business.Firstly it can spoil the image of the company by reducing the sales and secondly it does not allow the management to concentrate completely on their business as most of their time goes in finding new ways to deal with these problems. Opportunities: 1)Diversification of business: One of the opportunities is to diversify their business into areas such as shoe repairs,film processing,key cutting and contract cleaning in addition to achieveing a level of excellence in their core business i.e dry cleaning.Diversifiacation can help RCDC with increased profitability and seasonal challenges. 2)Innovative Marketing strategies: RCDC can come up with some innovative marketing ideas to top the market e.g:E-marketing,offering discounts to its loyal customers etc.It can also improve its customer service by providing the option of home delivery which can prove convenient to customers having a busy daily routine and can even beat the threat of one stop-shopping. 3)Improved organistioanl strategies: RCDC needs to implement training and development programmes for employees which can help in attracting more and more people for work,reduce employee turnover and will make the process more organised.Safety measures also needs to be included in this program so that the rate of accident is minimised. 4)Centralisation of operations: Decentralisation Iis a better opportunity than centralisation as decentralisation would lead to better customer care and speedy dry cleaning which could be helpful in getting more customers and increasing the profits .In addition to this store managers should be given more responsibility and powers so that they can take decisions regarding an problem related to the specific store as and required and do not have to depend on getting orders from headquarters. Present and potential problems faced by RCDC in the following areas: a)Operations management and organisational issues: Operations management is the activity of managing the resources which produce and deliver products and services.The operations function is the part of the oranisation that is responsible for this activity.Every organisation has an operations function because every organisation produces some type of products and /or services.Page 4 No organisation can survive in the long term if it cannot supply its customers effectively.And this is essentially what operation s management is about designing,producing and delivering products and services that satisfy market requirements.For any business,it is a vitally important activity. General problems in operations management faced by small and medium sized organisations : Operations management is just as important in small organisations as it is in large ones.Irrespective of their size,all companies need to produce and deliver their products and services efficiently and effectively.However,in practice,managing operations in a small or medium size organizations has its own set of problems.Large companies may have the resources to dedicate individuals to specialized tasks but smaller companies often cannot,so people may have to do different jobs as the need arises.such an informal structure can allow the company to respond quickly as opportunities or problems present themselves.But decision making can also become confused as individuals roles overlap.small companies may have exactly the same operations management issues as large ones but they can be more difficult to separate from the mass of other issues in the organisation. Present and potential operations management problems faced by RCDC can be discussed a follows: 1)No understanding of the operations strategic performance objectives: The first and foremost responsibility of any operations management team is to understand what it is trying to achieve,which means understanding how to judge the performance of the operation at different levels,from broad and strategic to more operational performance objectives.The management in RCDC is not paying any attention to this crucial area which can lead to further damange to the companys market share. 2)Operations strategy for the organisation: Operations management involves hundreds of minutes by minute decisions so it is vital that there is a set of general principles which can guide decision-making towards the organisations longer term goals called an operations strategy.RCDC do not have any specific operations strategy which is why the organisational growth is suffering and will continue to suffer if this issue is not addressed. 3)No measures for improving the performance of the operations: The continuing responsibility of all operations managers is to omprove the performance of their operations which is another issue to be addressed in RCDC. 4)social responsibility of operations management: It is increasingly recognised by many businesses that operations manager have a set of broad societal responsibilities and concerns beyond their direct activities.the general term for these aspects of business responsibility is corporate social responsibility or CSR.The accident that took place with one of the employees and the managements attitude towards that incident makes it evident that RCDC completely lacks CSR.This has already spoiled the brand image of the company and can ruin it completely. All these issues can turn RCDC into a failing organisation. Organisational Issues: 1)Due to the heavy drop in sales over the last few months ,the directors are considering centralisation of operations at Leicestershire site leading the company to substantial savings in staff costs and providing it with the opportunity to dispose of surplus machinery.However due to the conflict between the owners the idea of centralisation does not seem to work out.If any decision is not taken in the near future, the profitability of the company will keep going down and finally the owners may have to close don the company. 2)The present 24 branches operated by RCDC are not at all enough as far as the idea of centralisation is concerned.RCDCs main target is to increase the sales and for doing this they have to attract more and more customers which can only happen if they provide better and quik services to their customers as compared to the competitors.so,the geographical coverage is very important for the growth of the business. 3)The problem of moving goods from the retail outlets to the plant and then back to the outlets and customers is another issue which needs to be addressed.Making goods and services available to the customers on time is the biggest challenge for all the organisations as it is one of the ways of building healthy relationship with customers and making them loyal to the company. c)Sales and marketing Issues: Marketing Planning: Marketing Planning can be defined as the application of marketing resources to achieve marketing objectives(P-16,marketing plans that work) In simple words marketing planning is a series of activities and the formulation of plans for achieving them.Companies generally go through a management process in developing marketing plans .In small ,undiversified companies this process is usually informal and same is the case with RCDC.RCDC needs a much more systematized marketing plan to target more customers. Constructing a marketing plan is the most difficult task for RCDC as the owners do not agree to each other and they all have different expectations and goals altogether. 2)Decling Sales: The sales of RCDC are decling rigorously and the company is not taking any serious action regarding this issue .The company needs to conduct a marketing audit which is usually conducted by organisations in situation of decling sales ,falling margins,lost market share etc.Marketing audit is a means of defining problems precisely so that each problem can be addressed and eradicated. 3)Undiversification: According to the case ,Yorks want to diversify their business and move into related ares such as Shoe repairs,film processing.key cutting and contract cleaning which is actually a good idea to increase the overall profitability and can help RCDC to overcome the bad phase of reduced sales .Hoever the disagreement from lancasters is not allowing this idea to be turned into reality. 4)Sales Promotion: d)Personnel and industrial relations: 1) Training and development: Absence of training of and development is one of the biggest problems in RCDC. As per the case training and development programmes are considered to be an expense to the company and the employees are expected to pick up work as they go.Training and development can provide RCDC with the much needed competitive edge by improving the performance of the workers and the organisation as a whole. If this practice continues RCDC will completely fail in attracting employees to work for it ,as there are no growth opportunities for employees. 2)employee relations: As per the case ,there is a lot of friction between the employees and the management which is one of the many reasons for RCDCs high staff turn over.The management needs to value its employees and show concern to their problems as the employees are the building blocks of any organisation.In order to achieve longterm goals and future success RCDC must improve its relations with its employees. 3) Health and safety: The workers at RCDC are prone to accidents as there are no health and safety measures .The management is only concerned about increasing the profits without a proper planning and concern about the people who can actually help RCDC achieve it. 4) Job dissatisfaction: The high employee turnover makes it quite evident that the employees are not at all satisfied with their job at RCDC. There can be various reasons for it e.d: No growth opportunities. Risk factor No concern for employees well being from the management. Work stress. Competitors etc. 5)Orientation : Orientation programmes are must for every organisation as it helps new employees to get aware of the work practices and the expectations of the organisation.These orientation programmes are completely missing in RCDC and it effects the perception of employees. 6)legal issues: RCDC is dealing with court cases which is not a good sign for the growth of any business as it affects the brand image. 7)Internal conflicts: Another serious issue is the conflict between the owners which has created a sort of deadlock in the company as no plans are put into action.These internal problems have already affected and can futher affect the goodwill of the company. Accounting and Finance: The present and potential problems faced by RCDC in accounting and finance are as follows: 1) Payment of dividends: One of the main problems in RCDC is the poor dividend payment plan.Every organisation has a responsibility towards its stakeholders and if an organisation does not fullfill the expections of its shareholders,it has to bear the consequences such as internal conflicts,loss of credibility,reduced sales etc.which is exactly the case with RCDC.Therefore, RCDC has to improve the standard of paying dividends to its shareholders and for doing so ,it has to manage its financial resources in a proper and planned way and keep maximising the shareholders wealth. If the business is to achieve its objective of maximising shareholder wealth then it must use its resouces to maximise profits and cash flows.This will maximise shareholder wealth because there is general agreement that share prices reflect the discounted value of a firms cash flows.Whilst it may not be possible to increase dividends every year,shareholders like to know that dividends will be paid because they provide a signal to investors.A reduction in dividends is likely to lead to a reduction in share price because the signal to the market is one of the financial difficulties ahead.such a reduction in a firms share price will in evitably have other financial implications.The company may become target for a possible take over,particularly if another company believes that the reduction in earnings has been brought about by poor management rather than hostile trading conditions.Even if this does not happen the company may well see its credit rating reduced thus increasing its capita l costs because of the increased risk perceived by investors.Capital spending may also have to be stopped in an attempt to protect the firms cash flow. 2) Financing the new project of centralisation: RCDC is considering centralisation of operations which according to the management will help in reducing staff costs and the concentration of operations will allow the company to take advantage of the economies of scale.In,addition to this the machinery in the branches could be sold off to get some finance to invest in the new plant.The main problem with the centralisation is that the company is not having enough funds to invest in the new plant which is estimated to cost around 7,50,000 pounds.even selling off the surplus machinery in branches will hardly aid in solving the finance problem. At present ,there is no possibility of assuming any increase in sales ,that leaves RCDC with the option of taking a loan from a bank to finanace the project and for doing this the company needs to discuss the profitability of the proposed project which is expected to be 1300000 pounds that can act a basis for the bank authorities to sanction the loan.However ,considering the present market condition of the company ,it is quite difficult for RCDC to get a loan sanctioned from a bank as it has lost its credibility.Even if RCDC manages to get a loan ,it has to give a serious thought on how to repay the loan.Every business and every new project involves risk,but it should be a calculated one.Calculated risk makes the success of a company more predictable while, uncalculated risk can completely damage the business. 3) Costs involved in the new project: As per the proposed plan,only the staff cost is showing a reduction by 1,80,000 pounds all other costs are assumed to be same or to show an increase e.g,the head office cost at present is 240 and even for the new plant ,it is proposed to be 240, but the operating surplus is supposed to increase by 130000 pounds,same is the case with flat rental and other entities.According to the data provided in the summary of annual operating statement ,it can be understood that the proposed plan involves more cost and only marginal saving.so, the management should seriously analyse the implications of the proposed plan and decide whether they should invest in this plan or not.

Study On Adaptive Delta Modulation And Demodulation Computer Science Essay

Study On Adaptive Delta Modulation And Demodulation Computer Science Essay A modem to improve communication system performance that uses multiple modulation scheme comprising modulation technique and encoder combinations. As communication system performance and objective change, different modulation schemes may be selected. Modulation schemes may also be selected upon the communication channel scattering function estimate and the modem estimates the channel scattering function from measurements of the channels frequency (Doppler) and time (multipath) spreading characteristics. An Adaptive sigma delta modulation and demodulation technique, wherein a quantizer step size is adapted based on estimates of an input signal to the quantizer, rather than on estimates of an input signal to the modulator. A technique for digital conferencing of voice signals in systems using adaptive delta modulation (ADM) with an idle pattern of alternating 1s and 0s has been described. Based on majority logic, it permits distortion-free reception of voice of a single active subscriber by all the other subscribers in the conference. Distortion exists when more than one subscriber is active and the extent of this distortion depends upon the type of ADM algorithm that has been used. An LSI oriented system based on time sharing of a common circuit by a number of channels has been implemented and tested. This technique, with only minor changes in circuitry, handles ADM channels that have idle patterns different from alternating single 1s and 0s. This method used for noise reduction. The modulator factor does not require a large amount of data to be represented. Representation is based upon a frequency domain function having particular characteristics. A preferred embodiment of the invention incorporates transform or sub band filtered signals which are transmitted as a modulated analog representation of a local region of a video signal. The modulation factor reflects the particular characteristic. Side information specifies the modulation factor 1.2. Aim: Digital techniques to wirelessly communicate voice information. Wireless environments are inherently noisy, so the voice coding scheme chosen for such an application must be robust in the presence of bit errors. Pulse Coded Modulation (PCM) and its derivatives are commonly used in wireless consumer products for their compromise between voice quality and implementation cost. Adaptive Delta Modulation (ADM) is another voice coding scheme, a mature technique that should be considered for these applications because of its bit error robustness and its low implementation cost. 1.3. Objective: To show the Adaptive Delta Modulation (ADM) voice coding scheme which is the best coding scheme procedure when compare to all other techniques. The main part of the procedure is illustrated. 1.4. Methodology: Getting knowledge over different modulation and demodulation techniques Understanding Delta modulation and Adaptive delta modulation. Studying Matlab-Simulink which is used for designing of circuit. Implementing the circuit in the lab. Tuning and fixing and calculating its efficiency CHAPTER I Delta Modulation: Delta modulation is also abbreviated as DM or Ά-modulation. It is a technique of conversion from an analog-to-digital and digital-to-analog signal. If we want to transmit the voice we use this technique. In this technique we do not give that much of importance to the quality of the voice. DM is nothing but the simplest form of differential pulse-code modulation (DPCM). But there is some difference between these two techniques. In DPCM technique the successive samples are encoded into streams of n-bit data. But in delta modulation, the transmitted data is reduced to a 1-bit data stream. Main features: * The analog signal is similar as a series of segments. * To find the increase or decrease in relative amplitude, we should compare each and every segment of the approximated signal with the original analog wave. * By this comparison of original and approximated analog waves we can determine the successive bits for establishing. * only the change of information is sent, that is, only an increase or decrease of the signal amplitude from the previous sample is sent whereas a no-change condition causes the modulated signal to remain at the same 0 or 1 state of the previous sample. By using oversampling techniques in delta modulation we can get large high signal-to-noise ratio. That means the analog signal is sampled at multiple higher than the Nyquist rate. Principle In delta modulation, it quantizes the difference between the current and the previous step rather than the absolute value quantization of the input analog waveform, which is shown in fig 1. Fig. 1 Block diagram of a Ά-modulator/demodulator The quantizer of the delta modulator converts the difference between the input signal and the average of the previous steps. The quantizer is measured by a comparator with reference to 0 (in 2- level quantizer), and its output is either 1 or 0. 1 means input signal is positive and 0 means negative. It is also called as a bit-quantizer because it quantizes only one bit at a time. The output of the demodulator rises or falls because it is nothing but an Integrator circuit. If 1 received means the output raises and if 0 received means output falls. The integrator internally has a low-pass filter it self. Transfer Characteristics A signum function is followed by the delta modulator for the transfer characteristics. It quantizes only levels of two number and also for at a time only one-bit. Output signal power In delta modulation amplitude it is does not matter that there is no objection on the amplitude of the signal waveform, due to there is any fixed number of levels. In addition to, there is no limitation on the slope of the signal waveform in delta modulation. We can observe whether a slope is overload if so it can be avoided. However, in transmitted signal there is no limit to change. The signal waveform changes gradually. Bit-rate The interference is due to possibility of in either DM or PCM is due to limited bandwidth in communication channel. Because of the above reason DM and PCM operates at same bit-rate. Adaptive Delta Modulation (ADM) Another type of DM is Adaptive Delta Modulation (ADM). In which the step-size isnt fixed. The step-size becomes progressively larger when slope overload occurs. When quantization error is increasing with expensive the slope error is also reduced by ADM. By using a low pass filter this should be reduced. The basic delta modulator was studied in the experiment entitled Delta modulation. It is implemented by the arrangement shown in block diagram form in Figure Figure: Basic Delta Modulation A large step size was required when sampling those parts of the input waveform of steep slope. But a large step size worsened the granularity of the sampled signal when the waveform being sampled was changing slowly. A small step size is preferred in regions where the message has a small slope. This suggests the need for a controllable step size the control being sensitive to the slope of the sampled signal. This can be implemented by an arrangement such as is illustrated in Figure Fig: An Adaptive Delta Modulator The gain of the amplifier is adjusted in response to a control voltage from the SAMPLER, which signals the onset of slope overload. The step size is proportional to the amplifier gain. This was observed in an earlier experiment. Slope overload is indicated by a succession of output pulses of the same sign. The TIMS SAMPLER monitors the delta modulated signal, and signals when there is no change of polarity over 3 or more successive samples. The actual ADAPTIVE CONTROL signal is +2 volt under normal conditions, and rises to +4 volt when slope overload is detected. The gain of the amplifier, and hence the step size, is made proportional to this Control voltage. Provided the slope overload was only moderate the approximation will catch up with the wave being sampled. The gain will then return to normal until the sampler again falls behind. Comparison of PCM and DM When coming to comparison of Signal-to-noise ratio DM has larger value than signal-to-noise ratio of PCM. Also for an ADM signal-to-noise ratio when compared to Signal-to-noise ratio of companded PCM. Complex coders and decoders are required for powerful PCM. If to increase the resolution we require a large number of bits per sample. There are no memories in Standard PCM systems each sample value is separately encoded into a series of binary digits. An alternative, which overcomes some limitations of PCM, is to use past information in the encoding process. Delta modulation is the one way of doing to perform source coding. The signal is first quantized into discrete levels. For quantization process the step size between adjacent samples should be kept constant. From one level to an adjacent one the signal makes a transition of transmission. After the quantization operation is done, sending a zero for a negative transition and a one for a positive transition the signal transmission is achieved. We can observe from this point that the quantized signal must change at each sampling point. The transmitted bit train would be 111100010111110 for the above case. The demodulator for a delta-modulated signal is nothing but a staircase generator. To increments the staircase in positively a one should be received. For negative increments a zero should be receive. This is done by a low pass filter in general. The main thing for the delta modulation is to make the right choice of step size and sampling period. A term overloading is occurred when a signal changes randomly fast for the steps to follow. The step size and the sampling period are the important parameters. In modern consumer electronics short-range digital voice transmission is used. There are many products which uses digital techniques. Such as cordless telephones, wireless headsets (for mobile and landline telephones), baby monitors are few of the items. This digital techniques used Wirelessly communicate voice information. Due to inherent noise in wireless environments the Voice coding scheme chosen. For such an application the presence of robust bit errors must be. In the presence of bit errors Pulse Coded Modulation (PCM) and its derivatives are commonly used in wireless consumer products. This is due to their compromise between voice quality and implementation cost, but these are not robust schemes. Another important voice coding scheme is Adaptive Delta Modulation (ADM). It is a mature technique for consideration for these types of applications due to its robustness in bit error and its low implementation cost. To quantize the difference between the current sample and the predicted value of the next Sample ADM is used. It uses a variable called step height which is used to adjustment of the prediction value of the next sample. For the reproduction of both slowly and rapidly changing input signals faithfully. In ADM, the representation of each sample is one bit (i.e. 1 or 0). It does not require any data framing for one-bit-per-sample stream to minimizing the workload on the host microcontroller. In any digital wireless application there should be Bit errors. In ideal environment most of the voice coding techniques are provided which are good in quality of audio signals. The main thing is to provide good audio signals in everyday environment, there may be a presence of bit errors. For different voice coding methods and input signals the traditional performance metrics (e.g. SNR) does not measure accurately in audio quality. . Mean Opinion Score (MOS) testing is the main important parameter which overcomes the limitations of other metrics by successfully in audio quality. For audio quality the MOS testing is used. It is a scale of 1 to 5 which tells the audio quality status. In there 1 represents very less (bad) speech quality and 5 represents excellent speech quality. A toll quality speech has a MOS score of 4 or higher than it. The audio quality of a traditional telephone call has same MOS value as above. The below graphs shows the relationship between MOS scores and bit errors for three of the most common voice coding schemes. Those are CVSD, ÃŽÂ ¼-law PCM, and ADPCM. A continuously Variable Slope Delta (CVSD) coding is a member of the ADM family in voice coding schemes. The below graph shows the resulted audio quality (i.e. MOS score). All three schemes explain the number of bit errors. As the no of bit errors increases the graph indicates that ADM (CVSD) sounds better than the other schemes which are also increase. In an ADM design error detection and correction typically are not used because ADM provides poor performance in the presence of bit errors. This leads to reduction in host processor workload (allowing a low-cost processor to be used). The superior noise immunity significantly reduced for wireless applications in voice coding method. The ADM is supported strongly by workload for the host processor. The following example shows the benefits of ADM for wireless applications and is demonstrated. For a complete wireless voice product this low-power design is used which includes all of the building blocks, small form-factor, including the necessary items. ADM voice codec Microcontroller RF transceiver Power supply including rechargeable battery Microphone, speaker, amplifiers, etc. Schematics, board layout files, and microcontroller code written in C. Delta modulation (DM) may be viewed as a simplified form of DPCM in which a two level (1-bit) quantizer is used in conjunction with a fixed first-order predictor. The block diagram of a DM encoder-decoder is shown below.   The dm_demo shows the use of Delta Modulation to approximate an input sine wave signal and a speech signal that were sampled at 2 KHz and 44 KHz, respectively. The source code file of the MATLAB code and the out put can be viewed using MATLAB. Notice that the approximated value follows the input value much closer when the sampling rate is higher. You may test this by changing sampling frequency, fs, value for sine wave in dm_demo file. Since DM (Delta Modulator) approximate a waveform Sa (t) by a linear staircase function, the waveform Sa (t) must change slowly relative to the sampling rate. This requirement implies that waveform Sa (t) must be oversampled, i.e., at least five times the Nyquist rate. Oversampling means that the signal is sampled faster than is necessary. In the case of Delta Modulation this means that the sampling rate will be much higher than the minimum rate of twice the bandwidth. Delta Modulation requires oversampling in order to obtain an accurate prediction of the next input. Since each encoded sample contains a relatively small amount of information Delta Modulation systems require higher sampling rates than PCM systems. At any given sampling rate, two types of distortion, as shown below limit the performance of the DM encoder.   Slope overload distortion: This type of distortion is due to the use of a step size delta that is too small to follow portions of the waveform that have a steep slope. It can be reduced by increasing the step size. Granular noise: This results from using a step size that is too large too large in parts of the waveform having a small slope. Granular noise can be reduced by decreasing the step size. Even for an optimized step size, the performance of the DM encoder may still be less satisfactory. An alternative solution is to employ a variable step size that adapts itself to the short-term characteristics of the source signal. That is the step size is increased when the waveform has a step slope and decreased when the waveform has a relatively small slope. This strategy is called adaptive DM (ADM). Block Diagram Adaptive Delta Modulation for Audio Signals: While transmitting speech for e.g. telephony the transfer rate should be kept as small as possible to save bandwidth because of economic reason. For this purpose Delta Modulation, adaptive Delta modulation, Differential Pulse-Code modulation is used to compress the data. In this different kind of Delta modulations and Differential Pulse Code modulations (DPCM) were realized to compress audio data. At first the principal of compressing audio data are explained, which the modulations based on. Mathematical equations (e.g. Auto Correlation) and algorithm (LD recursion) are used to develop solutions. Based on the mathematics and principals Simulink models were implemented for the Delta modulation, Adaptive Delta modulation as well as for the adaptive Differential Pulse Code modulation. The theories were verified by applying measured signals on these models. CHAPTER II Pulse-code modulation: Pulse-code modulation (PCM) is a method used to digitally represent sampled analog signals, which was invented by Alec Reeves in 1937. It is the standard form for digital audio in computers and various Compact Disc and DVD formats, as well as other uses such as digital telephone systems. A PCM stream is a digital representation of an analog signal, in which the magnitude of the analogue signal is sampled regularly at uniform intervals, with each sample being quantized to the nearest value within a range of digital steps. PCM streams have two basic properties that determine their fidelity to the original analog signal: the sampling rate, which is the number of times per second that samples are taken; and the bit-depth, which determines the number of possible digital values that each sample can take. Digitization as part of the PCM process In conventional PCM, the analog signal may be processed (e.g. by amplitude compression) before being digitized. Once the signal is digitized, the PCM signal is usually subjected to further processing (e.g. digital data compression). PCM with linear quantization is known as Linear PCM (LPCM). Some forms of PCM combine signal processing with coding. Older versions of these systems applied the processing in the analog domain as part of the A/D process; newer implementations do so in the digital domain. These simple techniques have been largely rendered obsolete by modern transform-based audio compression techniques. * DPCM encodes the PCM values as differences between the current and the predicted value. An algorithm predicts the next sample based on the previous samples, and the encoder stores only the difference between this prediction and the actual value. If the prediction is reasonable, fewer bits can be used to represent the same information. For audio, this type of encoding reduces the number of bits required per sample by about 25% compared to PCM. * Adaptive DPCM (ADPCM) is a variant of DPCM that varies the size of the quantization step, to allow further reduction of the required bandwidth for a given signal-to-noise ratio. * Delta modulation is a form of DPCM which uses one bit per sample. In telephony, a standard audio signal for a single phone call is encoded as 8000 analog samples per second, of 8 bits each, giving a 64 Kbit/s digital signal known as DS0. The default signal compression encoding on a DS0 is either ÃŽÂ ¼-law (mu-law) PCM (North America and Japan) or A-law PCM (Europe and most of the rest of the world). These are logarithmic compression systems where a 12 or 13-bit linear PCM sample number is mapped into an 8-bit value. This system is described by international standard G.711. An alternative proposal for a floating point representation, with 5-bit mantissa and 3-bit radix, was abandoned. Where circuit costs are high and loss of voice quality is acceptable, it sometimes makes sense to compress the voice signal even further. An ADPCM algorithm is used to map a series of 8-bit  µ-law or A-law PCM samples into a series of 4-bit ADPCM samples. In this way, the capacity of the line is doubled. The technique is detailed in the G.726 standard. Later it was found that even further compression was possible and additional standards were published. Pulse code modulation (PCM) data are transmitted as a serial bit stream of binary-coded time-division multiplexed words. When PCM is transmitted, premodulation filtering shall be used to confine the radiated RF spectrum. These standards define pulse train structure and system design characteristics for the implementation of PCM telemetry formats. Class Distinctions and Bit-Oriented Characteristics The PCM formats are divided into two classes for reference. Serial bit stream characteristics are described below prior to frame and word oriented definitions. Two classes of PCM formats are covered in this chapter: the basic, simpler types are class I, and the more complex applications are class II. The use of any class II technique requires concurrence of the range involved. All formats with characteristics described in these standards are class I except those identified as class II. The following are examples of class II characteristics: a. Bit rates greater than 10 megabits per second b. Word length in excess of 32 bits. c. fragmented words d. more than 8192 bits or 1024 words per minor frame. e. uneven spacing, not within the definition of sub commutation or super commutation f. Format changes. g. asynchronous embedded formats h. tagged data formats. i. packet telemetry j. formats with data content other than unsigned straight binary, discrete, or complement arithmetic representation for negative numbers such as floating point variables, binary-coded decimal, and gain-and-value k. asynchronous data transmission l. merger of multiple format types Demodulation: Demodulation is the act of extracting the original information-bearing signal from a modulated carrier wave. A demodulator is an electronic circuit used to recover the information content from the modulated carrier wave. These terms are traditionally used in connection with radio receivers, but many other systems use many kinds of demodulators. Another common one is in a modem, which is a contraction of the terms modulator/demodulator. Techniques: There are several ways of demodulation depending on how parameters of the base-band signal are transmitted in the carrier signal, such as amplitude, frequency or phase. For example, for a signal modulated with a linear modulation, like AM (Amplitude Modulated), we can use a synchronous detector. On the other hand, for a signal modulated with an angular modulation, we must use an FM (Frequency Modulation) demodulator or a PM (Phase Modulation) demodulator. Different kinds of circuits perform these functions. Many techniques-such as carrier recovery, clock recovery, bit slip, frame synchronization, rake receiver, pulse compression, Received Signal Strength Indication, error detection and correction, etc. are only performed by demodulators, although any specific demodulator may perform only some or none of these techniques. Some Attributes of Demodulated data One important attribute of demodulation (or demod) data is that it focuses on high frequency vibration. Using a high pass filter, low frequency data is filtered out and a data collector is able to zoom in on low level high frequency vibration. This means that some peaks that would otherwise be lost in the noise floor of a normal narrow band spectrum (much lower than the normal vibration a machine emits) can be detected using demodulation techniques. Another feature of demod, or of high frequency vibration in general, is that it is easily attenuated and does not travel well through a machines structure (termed the disco effect). As one moves away from a loud music source, one tends to hear only the bass, or low frequency sound, since the treble or high frequency sounds dissipate rather quickly. This implies that vibration detected with demod is usually produced locally. In the case of a motor driving a pump through a coupling, demod data collected on the pump end will usually reflect the vibration emitted by the pump end. Lower frequency vibration may be transmitted through the coupling and may even be amplified on the other end of the machine depending upon its mobility. CHAPTER III Results: Critical Analysis: CHAPTER IV Conclusion: Short-range wireless digital voice transmission is used extensively in contemporary consumer electronics. Products such as cordless telephones, wireless headsets (for mobile and landline telephones) and baby monitors are just a few of the items that use digital techniques to wirelessly communicate voice information. Wireless environments are inherently noisy, so the voice coding scheme chosen for such an application must be robust in the presence of bit errors. Pulse coded modulation (PCM) and its derivatives are commonly used in wireless consumer products for their compromise between voice quality and implementation cost, but these schemes are not particularly robust in the presence of bit errors. Adaptive delta modulation (ADM) is a mature technique that should be considered for these applications because of its bit error robustness and its low implementation cost. ADM is a voice coding technique that quantizes the difference between the current sample and the predicted value of the next sample. It uses a variable step height to adjust the predicted value of the next sample so that both slowly and rapidly changing input signals can be faithfully reproduced. One bit is used to represent each sample in ADM. The one-bit-per-sample ADM data stream requires no data framing, thereby minimizing the workload on the host microcontroller. CHAPTER V